Orthomolecular medicine is the term coined by Linus Pauling for the preservation of good health and the treatment of disease by varying the concentrations in the body of substances that are normally present in the body and are required for optimal or better health. Pauling, L., Vitalstoffe Zivilisations Krankheiten 13:3-5, (1968). L-arginine is viewed a nonessential amino acid in humans for nitrogen balance and for metabolic purposes in that L-arginine can be synthesized in the human body in sufficient amounts without dietary supply of this amino acid except for optimum growth in young children and for select metabolic disorders involving hepatic ureagenesis and for stress states. Visek, W. J., J. Nutri. 115:531-541, (1985); Barbul, A., J. Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 10:227-238, (1986); Young, V. R. et al, pp. 191-243, in: Amino Acid Metabolism and Therapy in Health and Nutritional Disease, CRC Press, (1995).
L-citrulline is also viewed a nonessential amino acid in humans for nitrogen balance and metabolic purposes without supplemental supply of L-citrulline. This amino acid is not a component of most proteins within the human body except for some specialized proteins in cells in the epidermis, hair, and in myelin. Rothnagel, J. A. et al, pp. 624-631, in: Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, (1984).
L-arginine is a normal constituent of numerous body proteins and is associated with a variety of essential metabolic cell reactions including the initial amidinotransferase (E.C.26.21) reaction with glycine for creatine synthesis. Barbul, A., (1986); Young, V. R. et al, (1995). L-arginine also is a unique endogenous substeate for consitutive nitric oxide synthase (c-NOS) for production of the effector free radical, nitric oxide, in the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway for messenger agent. Schmidt, H. H. H. W. et al, Cell 78:919-925, (1994).
L-glutamine is another dietary nonessential amino acid that is in body fluids and it is derived from skeletal muscle metabolism of amino acids as a major endogenous source of 1-glutamine as precursor for the intestinal synthesis of L-citrulline. Young, V. R. et al, (1995). Without appreciable liver uptake of intestinal-derived L-citrulline in portal venous blood, L-citrulline is distributed by circulating blood to the kidneys, brain, and other cells. Windmueller, H. G. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 241:E473-E480, (1981). In these tissues, there is de novo cell conversion of L-citrulline to L-arginine for cell protein synthesis and other purposes. Jones, M. E., J. Nutr. 115:509-515, (1985).
Plasma L-citrulline availability to the kidneys appears to be the major important factor in determining the rate of endogenous (extrahepatic) arginine synthesis, based largely in nonhuman models. Dhanakoti, S. N. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 259:E437-E442, (1990). However, it has been assumed, but not known with confidence that this scheme applies equally to human subjects. Young, V. R. et al, (1995).
On the other hand, circulating blood plasma and whole body L-arginine homeostasis in healthy human subjects is believed to be achieved principally by modulation in the level of dietary arginine intake and/or by regulation in the rate of L-arginine degradation. This concept is based partly on the evidence that the rate of conversion of plasma citrulline to plasma arginine was found to be similar during the fast and fed states in healthy human subjects adapted to an arginine-rich (adequate) or arginine-free diet. Castillo, L. et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90:7749-7753, (1993); Young V. R. et al, (1995). A change in arginine synthesis in extrahepatic tissues is said not to be an important component to arginine homeostasis in the face of altered physiologic or pathologic states. The net rate of de novo arginine synthesis in human subjects is believed not to be profoundly affected by acute changes in the dietary intake level of arginine. Instead, arginine homeostasis is considered more likely to be achieved by changing rates of L-arginine degradation in relation to the prevailing metabolic conditions of the host subject and the dietary intake level of L-arginine. Young, V. R. et al, (1995).
Supplemental oral 3-gram single doses in healthy humans raises plasma arginine levels acutely, but without a change in plasma citrulline levels. Kamoun, P. et al, Clin. Chem. 37:1287, (1991). Based on studies in rats, after parenteral injection, of extra arginine, the concentrations of arginine in plasma and various tissues return to normal in about 2 to 3 hours as the plasma half-life is very short at about 1 hour. These pharmacokinetics of administered arginine is used to cast doubt on the usefulness of arginine sold in many health food stores, where consumers buy arginine preparations because of a variety of reputed, yet unproven, health benefits. Noeh, F. M. et al, Life Sciences 58:131-138(1996).
In humans, the rate of uptake or utilization by liver and other tissues of arginine is so rapid after ingestion of a single protein meal of about 30 to 50 grams of proteins (containing about 1 to 2 grams of arginine) that peripheral plasma arginine levels peak within 2 to 3 hours and return to near fasting levels in about 5 to 6 hours. Yearick, E. S. et al, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 20:338-344 (1967); Palmer, T. et al, Clin. Sc. Molec. Med. 45:827-832 (1973).
In normal adults, plasma levels of arginine peak at about 1 hour to about 3.6-times greater than fasting values of 90.+-.6 .mu.M (mean.+-.SEM) after ingestion of 24.8 grams of L-arginine (as 30 grams of arginine hydrochloride), but plasma levels return to near fasting values in 3 hours. Smoyer, W. E. et al, J. Lab. Clin. Med. 118:166-175, (1991). A single oral dose of 24.8 grams of free arginine may be estimated to be about 4.7-times greater than the total amount of arginine that is ingested daily in humans consuming a moderately high protein diet of 1.5 grams/kg body weight for a 70 kg person (with assumption that the arginine content in the protein is about 5%), about 5.25 grams of arginine|
Overnight fasting levels of arginine in blood plasma of healthy American children aged 6 to 18 are reported to be 89.+-.20 .mu.M (mean.+-.SD) and the overnight fasting levels of healthy adult men and women are reported as 89.+-.26 and 75.+-.24 .mu.M, respectively. Armstrong, M. D. et al, Metab. 22:561-569, (1973). Similar overnight fasting values for plasma arginine concentrations of healthy adults are reported by other workers, e.g. 84.+-.22 .mu.M and 94.+-.20 .mu.M (mean.+-.SD), respectively. Perry et al, J. Neurochem. 24:587-589, (1975); Scriver, C. R. Metab. 34:868-873, (1985). Overnight fasting plasma values of arginine are strikingly lower in healthy women during late normal pregnancy, viz. decline from 89.+-.20.8 .mu.M to 43.4.+-.5.6 .mu.M. Fitch, W. F. et al, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 46:243-249, (1987). Similarly, fasting plasma arginine levels are significantly lower (65.+-.14 .mu.M) in elderly men of well-fed good health, possibly related to the aging process or due to lower protein intake. Mariguti, J. C. et al, Amino Acids 9:46, (1995).
Various isozymes of nitric oxide synthase (EC 1.14.13.39) have been identified as being responsible for the constitutively expressed synthesis (continuously present, though not always active enzyme) of nitric oxide as an initial important product. L-arginine is the nitrogenous substrate for the enzymatic product of nitric oxide by constitutive nitric oxide synthase (c-NOS) activity and L-citrulline is formed stociometrically as a coproduct. Constitutive isozymes are present in endothelial cells, in central and peripheral neuronal cells, in epithelial cells, and many other cells of the body, including human blood platelets. Forstermann, U. et al, Hypertension 23:1121-1131, (1994); Radomski, M. W. et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:5193-5197, (1990); Murunganandam, A. et al, Biochim, Biophys. Acta 1200:1-6, (1994); Vasta, V. et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 206:878-884, (1995).
The synthesis of nitric oxide constitutively by vascular endothelium is responsible continuously for vasodilator tone, the control of platelet aggregation and adhesion, and the inhibition of leukocyte activation and adhesion. Thus, endothelium-derived nitric oxide via the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway is vasoprotective. Moncada, S. et al. New Engl. J. Med. 329:2002-2012, (1993); Schmidt, H. H. H. W. et al. Cell 78:919-925, (1994). Endothelium-derived nitric oxide potentially antagonizes all stages of platelet activation.
Platelets themselves generate nitric oxide by the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway mediated by constitutive NOS within platelets. This platelet pathway acts as a negative pathway to stabilize platelet function.
Utilization of L-arginine as substrate for platelet c-NOS serves as autocrine control of platelet function and the availability of extracellular L-arginine for a specific platelet transporter of this substrate is contributory to vasoprotection and antithrombotic effect. Radomski, M. W. et al, (1990); Muruganandam, A. et al, (1994); Vasta, V. et al, (1995).
The apparent Michaelis constant (K.sub.m) of L-arginine for purified endothelial c-NOS in vitro is about 6 .mu.M (the concentration of substrate when the velocity of enzymatic reaction is half-maximal). However, the concentration for maximal stimulation of the purified c-NOS is much higher, between 30 and 100 .mu.M. Mayer, B. et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 164:678-685, (1989). In the presence of extracellular L-glutamine concentration at level within a common normal plasma value in humans (600 .mu.M), endothelial production of nitric oxide generated by c-NOS in vitro is directly dependent upon the extracellular concentrations of L-arginine above 10 .mu.M to levels of 1,000 .mu.M and more without apparent saturation of the enzyme. Arnal, J. F. et al, J. Clin. Invest. 95:2565-2572, (1995). Thus, the functional apparent K.sub.m of extracellular L-arginine in vivo for constitutive endothelial generation of nitric oxide in intact cells is very much greater than that of the purified c-NOS near 6 .mu.M.
This discrepancy termed "the arginine paradox" underlies apparently the fact that much in vivo data shows that increasing plasma L-arginine concentrations in circulating blood above normal fasting mean values of about 75 to 90 .mu.M augments endothelial nitric oxide production by activated c-NOS. Fostermann, U. et al, (1994). Intracellular concentration of L-arginine does become rate-limiting for nitric oxide production in endothelial cells when stimulated under certain conditions and these cells can utilize exogenous L-arginine for nitric oxide catalytic formation. Bogle, R. G. et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 180:926-932, (1991).
With L-arginine infusion into humans with hypercholesterolemia, impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation is corrected, which is mediated through nitric oxide generation. Drexler, H. et al, Lancet 338:1546-1550, (1991); Creager, M. A. et al, J. Clin. Invest. 90:1248-1253, (1992).
Vascular injury and hypercholesterolemia enhance adhesiveness of vascular endothelium to platelets and leukocytes and enhance vascular proliferation. These are viewed critical processes in atherogenesis. A twofold increase in plasma arginine levels induced by a sixfold enrichment of dietary L-arginine improves nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation associated with antiatherogenesis and markedly inhibits endothelial adhesiveness and atherogenesis in hypercholesterolemic rabbit models. In the rabbit model, alterations in nitric oxide activity are viewed as playing critical roles. Cooke, J. P. et al, J. Clin. Invest. 90:1168-1172, (1992); Tsao, P. S. et al, Circulation 89:2176-2182, (1994). Thus, generated endothelial nitric oxide, derived from L-arginine and oxygen by c-NOS, has potent antiplatelet and antiproliferative roles. Cooke, J. P. et al, Current Opinion Cardiol. 7:799-804, (1992). Neither L-arginine nor its amino acid precursor, L-citrulline, is currently suggested or used as dietary supplements for platelet antagonistic, antithrombotic, or vasoprotective effects. Becker, R. C. Sci. Med. 3:12-21, (1996).
The apparent K.sub.m of L-arginine for its uptake into human platelets is reported at 26.+-.4 .mu.M and 300 .mu.M extracellular concentration of L-glutamine, L-lysine, or L-ornithine is inhibitory to L-arginine uptake at 30 .mu.M concentration. Vasta et al, (1995). It is viewed that varying concentrations of L-arginine in plasma may change the uptake of this amino acid into human platelets and consequently its substrate availability for platelet nitric oxide synthesis and platelet stability. Vasta et al, (1995).
Endothelial-dependent vasodilation, mediated through nitric oxide generation, is impaired also with advanced aging and increasing hypercholesterolemia. Zieher, A. M. et al, J. Clin. Invest. 92:652-662, (1993). Advanced non-enzymatic glycolation end products, which accumulate in the vascular endothelium and subendothelium in aging and diabetes mellitus, have been shown to quench formed nitric oxide and mediate defective endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Bucala, R. et al, J. Clin. Invest. 89:432-438, (1991). Aging is viewed producing a derangement of endothelium function in essential hypertension since renal vasodilatory responses to L-arginine were blunted in aged compared to young hypertensives. Compo, C. et al, Kidney Int. 49 (Suppl. 55):S-126-S-128, (1996).
Endothelial secretion of nitric oxide, a diffusible agent, is thought to be released primarily into the abluminal side where it activates smooth muscle relaxative vasodilation and antiproliferative functions. This molecule also diffuses into the luminal side of blood vessels where this product formed by c-NOS with L-arginine is an important vasoprotective and antithrombotic mediator. Wu, K. K. et al, Annu. Rev. Med. 47:315-331, (1996).
After arterial injury in a rabbit model of angioplasty with endothelial denudation. long-term daily addition of L-arginine hydrochloride to 2.25% in the drinking water, which increased plasma arginine levels about 2.6-times, reduced thickening and enhanced neoendothelium-dependent arterial muscle relaxation. Hamon, M. et al, Circulation 90:1357-1362, (1994).
Clinically, platelets are postulated to have an important adverse role in many acute and chronic cardiovascular events including disorders of microvascular occlusions and vasospasms. Harker, L. A. et al, Circulation 62 (Suppl. V):V-13-V-18, (1980). Nitric oxide formation from endothelial c-NOS activity has critical roles in the maintenance of vascular homeostasis. However, therapeutic strategies for vascular augmentation of enzymatic nitric oxide production for beneficial prevention and/or the amelioration of atherosclerosis or other diseases or for the attenuation of neointimal formation after endothelial injury, including direct supplementation of NOS substrate (L-arginine) or co-factors (such as tetrahydrobiopterin), have not been developed for efficacious, practical use in humans. Lloyd-Jones, D. M. et al, Annu. Rev. Med. 47:367-375, (1996).
Oral strategies also have not yet been designed or reduced to practice in humans using L-citrulline as precursor for efficiently increasing the potential endogenous production of nitric oxide through increased activity of constitutive nitric oxide synthases by increased availability of L-arginine for vasoprotection, neuroprotection, antithrombotic effects and myorelaxant effects via the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. Schmidt, H. H. H. W. et al, (1994). Also, similar oral strategies are not in the art for indirectly resulting in sustained luxus plasma concentrations of L-arginine for other healthy functions such as protein biosynthesis or creatine biosynthesis or for management of common disease states, such as in atherosclerosis, etc.
L-citrulline is sometimes used as a substitute for L-arginine in the management of rare genetic urea cycle enzymopathies and acquired liver disorders with hyperammonemia, and in the rare disorder, lysinuric protein intolerance. Citrulline malate (a salt of citrulline) is provided in slight amounts in a few European proprietary preparations for ill-defined or vague purposes in asthenia (weakness) or as a tonic. For liver disorders, citrulline is present with arginine and ornithine in some multi-ingredient proprietory preparations. Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th edition, (1993).
Specifically, efficient oral management strategies for humans using L-citrulline as precursor to L-arginine have not included sickle cell disease, normal late term pregnancy, preterm labor, preeclampsia (toxemia of pregnancy), symptomatic coronary artery disease (anginal chest pain)--even with angiographically normal coronary arteries (microvascular angina), vascular patency after arterial angioplasty, focal neurologic ischemic attacks including strokes and lacunar infarctions, migraine pain, vascular/neuronal complications of hypertensive disease, endothelial injury from chronic hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, aging, achalasia of the esophagus and male infertility. Francis, R. B. Jr. et al, Am. J. Hematol. 47:1405-1414, (1991); Wolters, H. J. et al, Brit. J. Haematol. 90:715-717, (1995); Steinberg, M. H., Am. J. Med. Sci. 312:167-174, (1996); Schoengold, D. W. et al, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 131:490-499, (1978); Dorner, K. et al, (1993); Fitch, W. L. et al, (1987); MacDonald, P. C. et al, Scient. Am. Sci. Med. 3:42-51, (1996); Roberts, J. M. et al, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 161:1200-1204, (1989); Molnar, M. et al, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 170:1458-1466, (1994); Egashira, K. et al, New Engl. J. Med. 328:1659-1644, (1993); Hamon, M. et al, (1994); Morikawa, E. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 263:H1632-H1635, (1992); Caplan, L. R., Neurol. 39:1246-1250, (1989); Lauritzen, M., Sci. Med. 3:32-41, (1996); Zeiher, A. M. et al, (1993); Compo, C. et al, (1996); Ross, R. et al, Science 193:1094-1100, (1976); Bucala, R. et al, (1991); Diederich, D. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 266:H1153-H1161, (1994); Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment, (1997); Schmidt, H. H. H. W., (1994); Schachter, A et al, J. Urol. 110:311-313, (1973); Calloway, D. H., Nutr. Absts. Revs. 53:361-382, (1983); Barbul, A., (1986).
Aging causes losses in the total number of functioning neurons. Wurtman, R. J., Sci. Am. 246:50-59, (1982). A deficiency in any key amino acid is said to limit the rate of protein synthesis and hence nutritional status. A deficiency in plasma L-arginine concentration is reported in elderly men of well-fed good health. Moriguti, J. C. et al, (1995). The free arginine concentration in cerebrospinal fluid is only about 23% of the plasma concentration of 84.+-.22 .mu.M (mean.+-.SD) in fasting healthy adults. Perry, T. L. et al, (1975). Free arginine levels in many motor and sensory areas of rat brain tissue decline by 20% or more in old compared to young adult male rats. Banay-Schwartz, M. et al, J. Neurosci. Res. 26:217-223, (1990). Plasma-borne L-citrulline readily passes the blood-brain barrier. Buniatan, H. C. et al, J. Neurochem. 13:743-753, (1966).
It is unclear how arginine is transported into brain cells from the blood plasma in humans. However, L-arginine may be localized mainly within glial cells in the central nervous system, while L-citrulline and nitric oxide as co-products of neuronal c-NOS are present within nitrergic neurons. Pow, D. V., Neurosci. Lett. 181:141-144, (1994). Membrane-localized c-NOS is found in dendrites and synaptic fractions of neurons and an increase in extracellular L-arginine may result in potentiation of neuronal function. Kantor, D. B. et al, Science 274:1744-1748, (1996).
Brain tissue arginine levels follow increases in plasma levels in the rat, but they are generally only 20 to 30% of plasma levels. Buckrnann, I. et al, Pharmacol. 53:133-142, (1996). L-citrulline can be converted to arginine in the brain, including perivascular nerves of cerebral arteries. Buniatan, H. C. et al, (1966); Sadasivu, B. et al, J. Neurochem 27:786-794, (1976); Chen, F.-Y. et al, J. Pharmacol. Exptl. Therap. 273:895-901, (1995).
With endothelial injury, atherosclerosis is considered to be a free radical disease. A constant source of damaging compounds is the reaction of oxygen with polyunsaturated substances in plasma and the vascular wall and the formation of oxidation products including peroxides and free radicals. Harman, D., Drugs & Aging 3:60-80, (1993). A small percentage of mitochondrial electron transport chain activity and autoxidation reactions leak electrons to reduce molecular O.sub.2 to superoxide radical as the one-electron reduction product of oxygen with secondary generation of hydrogen peroxide, another reactive oxygen species. Halliwell, B., Annu. Rev. Nutr. 16:33-50, (1996). Further cell damage and atherosclerosis may result, especially with aging. Harman, D., (1993).
More free radicals are formed in experimental diabetes mellitus with endothelial cell dysfunction due to impaired vasoprotection from the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. Diederich, D. et al, (1994). However, nitric oxide production from endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity and endothelial-dependent vasorelaxation are masked in experimental diabetes mellitus by the increased destruction of nitric oxide by oxygen-derived free radicals like superoxide and by quenching by advanced glycolation products in diabetic endothelium and subendothelium. Bucala, R. et al, (1991); Diederich, D. et al, (1994). Thus, removal of endothelium-derived nitric oxide by metabolic-formed superoxide or by advanced glycolated products deprives smooth muscle in vascular walls of a relaxative muscle tonic effect in diabetes mellitus. In experimental diabetes mellitus, long-term oral administration of L-arginine in marked amounts prevents the glomerular hyperfiltration and abnormnal filtration fraction hemodynamics and ameliorates the proteinuria. Reyes, A. A. et al, J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4:1039-1045, (1993).
The main function of formed nitric oxide, a free radical, as cell messenger seems to be to stimulate cell guanylate cyclase to elevate cyclic guanosine monophosphate, which in turn activates smooth muscle relaxation, platelet stability, and neurochemical potentiation. Moncada, S. et al, (1993); Schmidt, H. H . H. W. et al, (1994). Nitric oxide reacts strongly in biological systems with other metal-proteins and thiols, as well as with molecular oxygen and superoxide free radical. Stamler, J. S. et al, Cell 78:931-936, (1994).
Nitric oxide serves as a free radical scavenger by rapidly reacting with free radicals involved in lipid peroxidation and perhaps in aged-related modifications of proteins. Kanner, J. et al, Lipids 27:46-49, (1992); Stadtman, E. R., J. Gerontol. 43:B112-B120, (1988). In tissues, generated nitric oxide seems normally to be an antioxidant. Kanner, J. et al, Biochem, Biophys. 289:130-136, (1991). Mitochondria are one of the major intracellular sources of free radicals and defects in mitochondrial energy metabolism with increased production of reactive oxygen species may cause cell injury and neuronal degeneration. Nitric oxide generated by c-NOS may usually exert protective effects. Simonian, N. A. et al, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 36:83-106, (1996).
At suboptimal and depleted extracellular concentrations of L-arginine, activated nitric oxide synthase produces superoxide, highly potent peroxynitrite, and hydrogen peroxide as reactive oxygen species as mediators of cellular injury instead of nitric oxide. Xia, Y. et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:6770-6774, (1996); Heinzel, B. et al, Biochem. J. 281:627-630, (1992).
The magnitude of intracellular L-arginine is a crucial factor in switching nitric oxide synthase from the production of nitric oxide to the production of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. A decrease in perfusion flow may lead to tissue L-arginine depletion and cellular injury or death. Xia, Y. et al, (1996). Increasing L-arginine availability as substrate for nitric oxide synthase activity protects cells from apoptosis in an L-arginine-deficient (10 .mu.M) environment, perhaps by alleviating oxidative stress by terminating propagation of free radical chain reactions or by interacting with oxygen and superoxide to limit their reduction to more reactive oxygen species like hydrogen peroxide and hydroxide free radical. Mannick, J. B. et al, Cell 79:1137-1139, (1994).
Inhibition of constitutive nitric oxide synthase activity during the latter part of pregnancy produces a preeclampsia-like syndrome and retardation of fetal growth in rats. Molnar, M. et al, (1994). Much evidence suggests that preeclampsia and eclampsia are human diseases, typified by vasoconstriction, that are endothelial cell disorders with endothelial injury involving the fetoplacental vessels. Roberts, J. M. et al, (1989). Basal release of nitric oxide from c-NOS activity in human umbilical arteries and veins seem important in normal pregnancies and deliveries. Chaudhuri, G. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 265:2036H-2043H, (1993).
Maternal plasma levels of most amino acids are lower in normal pregnancy than in the nonpregnant state. The plasma levels of arginine decline progressively during the first, second, and third trimesters of normal human pregnancy. In the third trimester, fasting mean "normal" values of 43.6 .mu.M and 32 .mu.M have been found, with 95% statistical confidence ranges from 27.8 to 71.4 .mu.M and 8 to 68 .mu.M, respectively. Schoengold, D. M. et al, (1978); Dorner, K. et al, (1993). After a high-protein meal, postprandial levels of plasma arginine are significantly lower than in nonpregnant women. Fitch, W. L. et al, (1987). During gestation, maternal plasma arginine levels are significantly lower in mothers of fetally malnourished infants than that in mothers having normal babies. McClain, P. E. et al, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31:401-407, (1978).
Addition of L-arginine to extracellular fluid bathing isolated uterine muscle strips from gravid rats results in nitric oxide generation, dose-dependent muscle relaxation, and muscle quiescence. Yallampalli, C. et at, Endocrinol. 133:1899-1902, (1993).
Oral intake of 4 to 20 grams of arginine daily may improve total sperm counts and motility rates of spermatocytes of infertile men. Schachter, A. et al, (1973). Considered as a nutritional supplement, arginine's therapeutic value in male infertility is not well documented. Calloway, D. W., (1983). However, nitric oxide generation via the 1-arginine/nitric oxide pathway in testis and/or vas deferens may up-regulate spermiocytes and promote fertility. Schmidt, H. H. H. W. et al, (1994).
Achalasia is an idiopathic disorder of esophageal motility characterized by the absence of peristalsis and failure of a hypertonic lower esophageal sphincter of smooth muscle to relax during swallowing. The disorder seems to result from dysfunction or loss of nerve cells in the ganglionated myenteric plexuses and it likely involves nitrergic neurons (and perhaps submucous plexuses--W.H.W.). McQuaid, K. R. pp. 553-554 in: Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 1997, (1997).
In sickle cell disease, poorly understood endothelial dysfunction, intimal hyperplasias, thromboses, and vascular occlusions including strokes are characteristic. Francis, R. B. Jr. et al, (1991). Unexplained sudden death in young people is too common in sickle cell disease. Liesner, R. J. et al, J. Royal Soc. Med. 86:484-485, (1993). Sudden death following severe exercise may occur even in subjects with sickle cell trait. Kerle, K. K. et al, Mil. Med. 161:766-767, (1996). Adhesion of sickle erythrocytes to vascular endothelium is postulated to play a pivotal role in the vascular occlusions. Duits, A. J. et al, Clin. Immunol. Immunopath. 81:96-98, (1996). Low-intensity oral anticoagulation management in sickle cell disease may reverse the prothrombotic state. Wolters, H. J. et al, (1995).
Migraine is a neurologic disorder characterized by recurrent headache attacks lasting up to about 72 hours. The basic disease process seems to be a disturbed ionic homeostasis in the neuronal microenvironment following a cortical spreading wave of transient electrical depolarization. Lauritzen, M., (1996). Migraine attacks may be precipitated by different factors in various individuals via sensory afferent impulses projecting to the brain or by substances crossing the blood-brain barrier. Migraine without aura and migraine with aura are viewed identical as regards the painful pathophysiological phase of the attack, but differ at the onset of attack involving a primary disturbance of nerve cell function which may relate to mitochondrial dysfunction. Theory now is that longer-lasting microcirculatory changes follow the cortical depression with continued arteriolar vasoconstriction and arteriolar spasm focally with hypoperfusion, stasis, or ischemia. Lauritzen, M., Brain 117:199-210, (1994); Lauritzen, M., (1996).
Generation of the migraine headaches are viewed caused by secondary activation of pain-sensitive fibers within the walls of intracranial blood vessels (nociceptive vascular nerve fibers) including the pial arterial tree. Lauritzen, M., (1994); Lauritzen, M., (1996). Migraine pain may be triggered in some cases by nociceptive activation in dural blood vessels secondary to ischemic blood flow in the middle meningeal artery. Lambert, G. A. et al, Cephalalgia 14:430-436, (1994).
L-arginine administration reduces the oligemic vasoconstriction that follows induced cortical spreading depression in rats and raises the possibility that shortage of L-arginine contributes to reduced cerebral blood flow in migraine patients and that migraine patients might benefit from the systemic administration of L-arginine. Fabricius, M. et al, Am. J. Physiol. 269:H23-H29, (1995); Lauritzen, M., (1996). Wolff found that inhalation of small amounts of amyl nitrite, a well-known donor of nitric oxide, temporarily reversed migraine aura in some cases. Silberstein, S. D. et al, p. 115 in: Wolff's Headache and Other Head Pain, 6th ed., (1993). Also, platelet activity increases with acute migraine headaches, possibly related to physiological or other stress. DeBelleroche, J. et al, pp. 185-191 in: The Headaches, ed. J. Olesen et al, (1993).
It is known in the art that ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the major source of chemical energy in living matter. ATP is a powerful effector of many enzymes and ATP levels are kept relatively constant in health by creatine phosphokinase and adenylate cyclase enzyme reactions. It is also known in the art that the creatine phosphokinase enzyme reaction is pivitol to good health since phosphocreatine serves as a dynamic reservoir of high-energy phosphate. This reservoir is normally high in muscle and nerve cells. Phosphocreatine buffers the high cytosolic ATP/ADP ratios from rapid fluctuations by means of the creatine phosphokinase reaction on ATP and ADP levels. Rapid fluctuations in ATP levels would be deleterious to the smooth functioning of cell cation pumps and maintaining of ionic gradients. It is also known in the art that the total creatine content in human cells is highest in muscle, brain, and testis and that free creatine serves as an energy messenger between mitochondria (the major "energy factory") and many sites of energy utilization within muscle cells, neurocytes, and many cells of the body, in the "creatine-phosphocreatine shuttle". The concentration equilibrium ratio between creatine and phosphocreatine is known to be about 0.4 to 0.5 in muscle and brain cells and there is a continuous drain or loss of phosphocreatine through a non-catalyzed cyclization to creatinine, a waste product.
Free creatine is reported high at about 14 mmol/kg in human heart muscle. Guichard, P. et al, Medical Hypotheses 45:41-44, (1995). Free creatine is high at about 8 to 9 mmol/kg in grey matter and high at about 6 mmol/kg in white matter of the human brain. Michaelis, T. et al, Radiology 187:219-227, (1993). Besides serving as reactant for phosphocreatine formation, creatine may serve a cytoprotective role as an amine to scavenge intracellular hexose or triose sugars formed at undue levels in diabetes mellitus (or aging--W.H.W.). Guichard, P. et al, (1995). Deleterious non-enzymatic reactions between glucose or phosphorylated sugar intermediates and amine groups of protein side-chains might take place leading to adversely modified protein products (Maillard products) or advanced glycolated products. Guichard, P. et al, (1995). Advanced glycolated products are capable of quenching nitric oxide formed by constitutive nitric oxide synthases. Bucala, R. et al, (1991).
Extracellular creatine increased by 3 mM in hippocampal brain tissue in vitro results in large increases in neuronal free creatine and phosphocreatine levels without change in ATP levels. Degrees of anoxia-induced neuronal damage are attenuated and greater neurocyte viabilities result after anoxic periods. Carter, A. J. et al, J. Neurochem. 64:2691-2699, (1995).
Oral supplementation of creatine daily in healthy normal humans leads to lessened muscle fatigue with physical exercise. T he creatine supplementation is associated with greater muscle stores of free creatine and phosphocreatine. Harris, R. C. et al, Clinical Sci. 83:367-374, (1992). Fatiguing myocytes produce reactive oxygen species at a dramatically increased rate and seem to be responsible for at least some of the fatigue. Concurrently, constitutive nitric oxide synthases in the mitochondrial membranes of the myocytes produce more nitric oxide. Reid, M. B., News Physiol. Sci. 11:114-119, (1996).
It is known in the art that spermatozoa contain large concentrations of creatine. It is also known that the concentration of arginine in seminal ejaculates averages normally about 4.5 mM in subjects with normospermia. Addition of L-arginine in vitro to human semen specimens with low motility enhances sperm motility in a concentration-dependent manner between 1.0 and 4.0 mM. Keller, D. W. et al, Biol. Reproduct. 13:154-157 (1975).
It is known in the art that L-arginine is an essential precursor for the biosynthesis of creatine in the human body in a 2-step enzymatic process. Glycine amidinotransferases are present in kidney, liver, and other tissues for the transfer of the guanidino group of L-arginine to glycine to yield guanidoacetate, the immediate precursor of cell creatine.
Low-dose acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) intake in humans inhibits platelet activity and prolongs the total bleeding time. These effects are associated with beneficial therapeutic effects in subjects with cardiovascular disease. Boysen, G. et al, Stroke 15:241-243, (1984).